From hypersonic aircraft to nuclear-powered submarines, many of today’s most advanced defense systems rely on a special class of materials known as refractory alloys. This class refers to metals that do not melt or weaken easily, even in extreme heat.
An alloy is a material made by combining two or more metallic elements to achieve properties no single metal can offer on its own – greater strength, for example, or better resistance to corrosion. Refractory alloys are based on elements such as tungsten, niobium and molybdenum, which have some of the highest melting points of any metals.
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